International Journal of Language Academy, Year 2015 Issue 7

ŞEFÎK MEHMED’S GHAZELS

Bahir SELÇUK& Mesut ALGÜL — 2024-08-29

Şefik, whose real name is Mehmed and who is known by his nickname Masrafzâde, worked as a clerk, hacegan, mukataa, and chronicler. Şefik Mehmed, who is widely known as a historian, is known by his work named Şefikname in which he told about Edirne Case which took place in 1703. There is not any evidence saying that Şefik, who is mentioned being as a good poet in some tezkires, has a diwan. In some tezkires, some couplets from his poems are presented as an example. These couplets exemplify Şefîk’s amorous poetry style. Besides, there are 6 qasida, 9 ghazels and 1 couplet of Şefik Mehmed in a magazine organized in 1118 (1707) and which is in Topkapi Palace Museum Library now. 5 of these qasida include religious theme. 2 of them are naat, 1 of them is invocation and the other one is a medhiyye written for four great caliphs. The other qasida is a medhiyye written for Rami Mehmed Paşa. The first of his ghazels is an invocation. The other ghazels and couplets were written in an amorous way. The last two ghazels consisting of two couplets are of uncompleted ghazels. There are Şefîk’s 3 ghazels and 4 couplets in the biographical sources. In this study, the general features of Şefik Mehmed's ghazels in mentioned majmua and his sample poems in tezkires will be focused and their transcripts will be given.

APPLICABILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF PROCESS-BASED WRITING APPROACH WITH WORKING GROUPS

Ali GÖÇER — 2024-08-29

The purpose of this study is to determine the efficiency of the application group study examining the textsthey create with the context of process-based writing in Turkish student teachers writing education coursein the faculty of education. In this study, were carried out four working groups. The working groupsdetermined by the method for sampling and clustering from the third grade students taking the course ofWriting Training in the Faculty of Education at Turkish Education Department. Information about themodel of process-based writing was given to functional groups, and future studies are planned, and givinginstructions to guide groups were made throughout the process. Groups have completed their products inaccordance with the instructions. The products that revealed of groups has been examined the basicelements of text and the criteria of textuality ‘coherence and consistency’ in the context. According to theresults, Turkish student teachers in the Faculty of Education has been shown to have requiredqualifications they have created with texts process-based model of writing and group studies considered interms of the criteria.

RAISING CULTURAL AWARENESS OF TURKISH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ATTENDING EFL PREPARATORY CLASSES

Gülten KOŞAR& Hasan BEDİR — 2024-08-29

Culture is the accumulation of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes a group, institution or society. The relation between culture and language has long been of interest to researchers, and the common view regarding the relation between culture and language has been centered upon the intertwinement between them. Such an interest is due to the fact that being aware of target culture is of crucial significance for fruitful and successful communication. For native speakers it is not uneasy to adapt to their own culture, because they are surrounded by the society where features of the culture are noticeable in all aspects. Nevertheless, in Turkish context learners do not have a great deal of opportunities to become aware of target culture, rather it is underestimated and neglected in the course of teaching. Text books and the media are the main sources helping students become aware of target culture; hence as English language teachers we should take action with the intention of teaching cultural aspects of target language whether or not it is overtly stated in the curriculum. Therefore, this study aims at enabling university prep-class level students to become aware of target culture while they are intensively studying English in the preparatory classes so that they can both enhance their proficiency level in English and develop a sense of global harmony and peace. The participants of the study were 25 university prep class students. Observation and semi-structured interview were used as data collection tools. The findings of the study revealed that embedding culture teaching into language learning process raised students’ awareness of the significance of target culture alongside target language.

LINGUISTICS REFERENCES FUNCTIONS OF NUMBER WORDS IN TURKISH: NUMBERS AS PRONOUNS

Muna YÜCEOL ÖZEZEN — 2024-08-29

The number words in language research and grammar sources in Turkey are always divided into two categories: number nouns and numbers as adjectives. However, in Turkish, number words can be also used with main linguistic reference functions such as concealment, substitution and replacement. In other words, a number word can be used as number as pronouns as well as number nouns and number as adjectives. For a number noun to be used anaphorically, it should be in the form of either cardinal or ordinal number. Distal or proximal references can be observed in lexical phrases formed with cardinal or ordinal numbers as adjectives in Turkish: such as adamlardan biri “one of the men”, öğrencilerin ikisi “two of the students”, üçüncü kişi “the third person”. However, classification of number nouns as a pronoun as a lexical class can be possible through abridgement of phrasal structures formed with cardinal and ordinal numbers: such as biri “the one”, ikisi “the two”, üçüncüsü or üçüncü “the third”. When the subjects of concealment, substitution and replacement exceeded the lexical level, many phrases containing any number word are also becoming noticeable. In this paper, how the referential functions of number nouns are described in the texts will be dwelt upon. Then, these functions will be classified by showing examples from the literary texts in Turkish.

REASONS BEHIND YOUNG LEARNERS’ LEARNING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Aslıhan AKÇAY, Tuba FERZAN BÜTÜNER & Arda ARIKAN — 2024-08-29

English has become a compulsory lesson starting at the second grade in Turkey while younger learners are growingly introduced to it at earlier ages through various pre-schools, day-care programs and private courses. This descriptive study focuses on young learners’ self-reported reasons for learning English and other foreign languages. Twenty children (11-12 year-olds) who have been studying for over two years at a private language school in Antalya participated in the study through structured face-to-face interview questions. After completing the recordings, the data were transcribed and translated into English. Content analysis was used to analyze the data. Results of the study have shown that students want to learn Spanish as a foreign language after English. In addition to these languages, French and Russian were counted as the languages students wanted to learn as foreign languages. This study also found that the participants were mostly extrinsically motivated as learners. It is also noteworthy that young learners who participated in the study used an emotional language while describing the language(s) they were learning or while mentioning their reasons for studying these languages. Although the study is limited to a small group of young learners, it is important in that it is one of the first studies in the field and within the context of our country.

ARCHAIC WORDS IN THE MUSTAFA KUTLU’S NARRATIVE “BEYHUDE ÖMRÜM”

Şerif TİRYAKİ — 2024-08-29

Language is a mechanism which constantly changes and develops. This change and development effects not only the grammatical elements but also the words within language. While some words are conserved as they are some others fall out of use. The words and forms which have been used in historical period of language but have fallen out of use today are named as the French originated term “arkaik” within related sources and the dictionaries. Arkaik words have a significant position in that they both bear the traces of the thistory and the origin of the language they belong and reflect the cultural wealth of the society.Turkish language has a large vocabulary in terms of archaic words used in literary works. One of the writers using this vocabulary most effectively is Mustafa Kutlu who has a unique place in the recent Turkish narration. Among the factors that make him different and special is wide coverage of folk literature and folklore elements in his works. This is the reason why a considerable number of archaic words used in other Turkish dialects or Anatolian dialects but not used in written language of Turkey’s Turkish are encountered while reading his works. His literary work, Beyhude Ömrüm, is interesting in this respect. In this study, the words which may be consdiered as archaic in Beyhude Ömrüm are identified and lined up alphabetically. With the help of the dictionaries and other sources the meanings and historical process of these words are emphasized, and knowledge about their use in Anatolian dialect have been given.

DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES THROUGH NOVELS

Gülşah KÜLEKÇİ& Esin KUMLU — 2024-08-29

Critical thinking is an intellectual concept that encourages individuals to analyze, evaluate and explain through interpreting ideas from a broader perspective. So as to encourage critical thinking among EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students, literary texts, can be a beneficial tool. This article aimed at paving the ways to make students achieve critical thinking skills through reading novels. The main purpose of choosing novels to establish critical thinking skills in students is that literature has been looked at as an object of study and this field was little treated as an applied field in the other aspects of language learning, especially critical thinking. In this study a mixed research design is followed. First, CAAP Critical Thinking Test is conducted to pre-service English teachers before and after the treatment. In the second phase, follow-up qualitative interviews are conducted with the volunteers only. In addition, a special course design is developed for their presentations during a 14 week period. As literature fosters the development of critical thinking skills, content-based instruction has been suggested by the researchers as an effective way to develop both critical thinking and language learning skills of the students.

SALIENT VOICE CHANGES IN MIXED-LANGUAGED KİTAB-I ATA-DEDE

İsmail GÜNEŞ — 2024-08-29

Ancient Anatolian Turkish is a historical written language that encompasses approximately 13.-15. Centuries in the Anatolian geography and that developed based on Oghuz language. This historical period is one of the periods which language researchers discuss on how and where Turkish language formed. However, by getting in the text from time to time, some dialect features make it difficult to pronounce as standard Old Anatolian Turkish. During this historical period of Turkish language, many works, whether translation or original, were authored. In some works belonging to the early periods of Ancient Anatolian Turkish, various dialectic features of the Turkish Language are seen together. In these works that are Connecting Karakhanid (Karahanlı) Turkish period and Old Anatolian Turkish period it is possible to see both Oghuz language and Eastern Turkish language features. Thus, researchers have different opinions about these works which are called Mixed Language Works. Mixed Language Works, with their linguisitc features, are important as regards with their information about the historical dialects of the Turkish Language. Mixed language works which carry language features that are belonged to West and East Turkish language played an important role in progress of Oghuz language. Some linguists called this period as Olga-Bolga matter based on mixed language works. Kitab-ı Ata Dede which its only copy is in Turkish Language Institution, seems as a mixed language work in terms of its language features. In this study, despite featuring mixed language, the manuscript named Kitâb-ı Ata Dede has been examined for its voice changes, which primarily carries Ancient Anatolian Turkish features and isn’t come across within the resources. It is aimed to contribute to works that are about mixed language studies by exposing phonetic features of work which it carries.

ACCORDING TO TEXTE LINGUISTICE A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF POEMS:TAHMIS BY NABI VS GAZEL BY FUZULI

Pelin EKŞİ — 2024-08-29

Text linguistics that was initiated as of 1950’s, consists of the methods and the approaches related to the analysis of the relationships among the structures beyond the sentence level in written or spoken text and it deals with all kinds of text. Text is a piece of language and every text conveys a message. The message consists of semantic, pragmatic and textual components. A text both semantic product and process as well as a “communicative occurrence”. These are the required standards of textuality. There are seven principles of textuality: Cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality. However, because of its particular qualities, poetry is could not be analyzed fully via criteria of text linguistics. Therefore imagery, smiles, connations and semantic progression should be the other criteria. In this text, by applying the text linguistical methods, a Nâbî’s tahmîs which was converted from Fuzûlî’s gazal is analyzed comparatively. To the best of this researcher’s knowledge, new methods and approaches are limitedly made use of when analyzing the Divan literature. The assumption in this study is that empyloyment of contemporary methods and approaches could lead to better understanding of this deep rooted literature. Hence, the ultimate aim of this article is to contribute to the literature in this respect.

THE EMPHATIC TENDENCY OF PRE-SERVİCE PRİMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (CANAKKALE 18 MART UNİVERSİTY SAMPLE)

Gizem ENGİN& Salih Zeki GENÇ — 2024-08-29

Empathy skills seem important to live healthy communication process. Teaching profession is based on communication. Teachers’ high empathy skills provide to effective process for students. In faculty of education should be tried to developed empathy skills. This study aimed to determine the emphatic tendency level of pre-service primary school teachers. Also, it was investigated the emphatic tendency level of pre-service primary school teachers according to gender and hometown. The present situation was exactly described so this study was designed as a descriptive study. The Emphatic Tendency Survey, developed by Dokmen (1988), was used as a collecting data tool during this study. Scale is 5-point Likert-type. Rating is formed as “Completely Disagree”, “Mostly Disagree”, “Undecided”, “Mostly Agree” and “Completely Agree”. The scale consists of 20 items. Data were obtained from 205 Pre-Service Primary School Teachers who studied at Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University in 2014-2015 academic year (fall semester) via survey forms. The collected data were analyzed by using SPSS. Descriptive statistics such as arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum-maximum values, percentage calculation also t-test and Anova were applied on data. The average point of pre-service primary school teachers’ emphatic tendency level was calculated as 71.38 points. As a result of this study, there were no significant differences in the emphatic tendency level of pre-service primary school teachers according to gender and hometown variables.

CONSERVATIONS AND TRACES OF THE MOTİVE OF THE PİCTURE LOVE IN THE MODERN TURKISH NOVEL

Dilek ÇETİNDAŞ — 2024-08-29

Folk tales of heroes dreamed after a crisis period, he gained a new personality and drinking bade or encounter hero sets out to look for him in this dream by seeing a picture of a girl in love. After many arduous struggle itself is a love that his or perfected or narrative, resulting in the death of the lovers. In the modern novel had seen a picture of the hero / image obtained / portrait of his / photograph taken by being in love with lover, to fight in his sake, this hero to reach the lover sees the image, and the last in love or death or to result in restoring motifs found in his works repeated in the same order. The novel of this different from the traditional mold, the progress of the case, constructions and type of official hero or vary the point of reaching love and narrative adapted with a realistic framework for urban life. In this sense, the point of finding the change and transformation of traditional elements in the modern novel, is in love with painting motif constitutes an important example.

BAUMAN’S PERSPECTIVE TO TANZİMAT AND SERVET-İ FÜNUN PERIOD NOVELS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF TURKISH MODERNIZATION: UNDERSTANDING OF AMBIVALENCE IN TERMS OF LANGUAGE

Özlem ÖRDEM — 2024-08-29

This study examined Tanzimat (Reforms) and Servet-i Fünun novels in Turkish modernization process from the perspective of Bauman who developed the idea of ‘ambivalance’ linguistically. This study is qualitative with its descriptive review and content analysis technique. Subsequent to the analysis of Turkish modernization theories and reading the selected novels in the study, the ideal characters from the novels were extracted, and the relationship between the sociological discourse and the ideal characters in the novels was established. This link was attached to Bauman’s term ‘ ambivalence’. It was found that there was a correlation between Bauman’s sociolinguistic term and sociological discourse and the ideal characters in the novels. Bauman states that naming and classifying a society is an ordinary practice of modernity. Based on this conceptualization, it can be said that the same naming and classifying process was observed in Ottoman. Unlike Tanzimat, Servet-i Fünun can be perceived as a marginal and unusual community and represent ambivalence in the society. Therefore, it can be stated that there is a correlation between Bauman’s ambivalence and the ideas regarding Turkish modernization along with the ideal characters in the novels. Henceforth, Bauman’s analysis of ambivalence in modernity can be reinterpreted to study Turkish modernization.

EXAMINING OF THE BURNOUT LEVEL OF PRE-SERVICE TURKISH TEACHERS (THE SAMPLE OF EGE UNIVERSITY)

Göksu ÇİÇEKLİ KOÇ — 2024-08-29

This study intends to determine pre-service teachers’ -who studied at Ege University Faculty of Education Turkish Teaching licence programme in 2014-2015 academic year (spring semester)- burnout levels according to their gender, grade and preference. In the study, “Maslach Burnout Inventory (Student Version)” was used which was developed by Schaufeli et al (2002) in order to determine the burnout levels of students and adopted to Turkish by Balkıs et al (2011) as a measurement tool. The scale which is consisted of 15 items is seven-point Likert-type. Rating is formed as “Completely Agree”, “Agree”, “Slightly Agree, “Undecided”, “Slightly Disagree”, “Disagree” and “Completely Disagree”. Overall burnout level is determined by calculating all scale items. Getting the highest score from scale is considered as an indicator of higher burnout. 50 pre-service Turkish teachers studying at first grade, 45 pre-service Turkish teachers studying at second grade, 42 pre-service Turkish teachers studying at third grade and 34 pre-service Turkish teachers studying at fourth grade were consisted the sample of the study. In this study, 171 prospective teachers’ (109 female and 62 male) burnout levels were evaluated. The collected data were analyzed by using SPSS. T-test and Anova were applied on data. Significant differences were observed in the burnout level of pre-service Turkish teachers according to gender in the favor of female (X=62.86), the burnout level according to grade in the favor of 4th grade (X=78.20), the burnout level according to preference in the favor of involuntary (X=69.70).

FROM DEATH PSYCHOLOGY TO DEEP ECOLOGY AND EASE: KATHERINE MANSFIELD’S FINAL DAYS IN FRANCE

Şebnem KAYA — 2024-08-29

In 1922, at a time when death was closing on her, Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) could forget the solemnity of her state by adopting a holistic approach to the world, which, in 1973, Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss (1912-2009) would theorise about and term “deep ecology.” At the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man at Fontainebleau-Avon, on the threshold of her permanent end, deep in her psyche Mansfield found happiness in the feeling of kinship with and compassion for life forms other than her own. There she also saw the physical representation of the philosophy of deep ecology in Russian mystic George Ivanovich Gurdjieff’s (1866?-1949) “Movements,” a symbolic dance deemed sacred and traceable to Sufism which, with its stress on the unity within the universe, had centuries ago foreshadowed deep ecology. Furthermore, at Fontainebleau, where the paths of people of different nationalities and creeds intersected, Mansfield felt affiliated with humans, thereby calling Gurdjieff’s disciples “my people,” and contemplated in unison with them man’s symbiotic relation to the universe. This paper, focused on the last stage of Mansfield’s life which she spent in France with references to her letters and other relevant writings, proposes to discuss that in the said period and setting, the writer acquired a sense of oneness with both human and nonhuman nature, or nature in its totality, which ultimately, like alchemy, transformed the painful period she had to endure into a rewarding one.

AN ANALYSIS OF DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE APPROACH ADOPTING IN TEACHING GERMAN GRAMMAR

İbrahim Halil YAPRAK& Güleser KORKMAZER — 2024-08-29

The aim of this research is to find out the effects of the use of two different grammar teaching approaches in the preparatory class majoring in German Language Teaching at Faculty of Education, in Dicle University. In this study, pretest-posttest control and experimental group research design was adopted. As participants, 30 female and 10 male students were recruited. While in control group the rules related to past tense form of Perfekt (the past tense) were directly taught, in experimental group which was more autonomous learning environment, it was ensured that students could discover the rules themselves. Firstly, written texts structured around Perfekt were distributed to the students; then, three-step sos Sammeln› Systematisieren› Ordnen that the (compilation› regulation› systematization) were analyzed according to the rules. In light of the exercises in grammar books, the comments and suggestions offered by the academic experts in the field, a Perfekt achievement test consisting of six chapters Perfekt was designed. KR-2O reliability coefficient of the test was calculated as 0.896. According to Independent samples t-test results of the pre-test, there was no significant relationship between the control and experimental groups and the groups were recorded as homogeneous. After the applications of two approaches and posttest, no significant difference was noted. Additionally, for deeper analysis, the analysis of variables such as gender, type of school, and field that the students studied in their high schools were also conducted. The use of Mann Whitney U-test for the difference between gender and posttest scores showed significant differences in favor of the female participants. Kruskal-Wallis test results, on the other hand, pointed out a significant correlation between the types of the school that the participants enrolled during their high school education. Based on these post-test results, it was noted that students of Anatolian High School were more successful than the rest.

INVESTIGATION OF THE NOVEL “KAPİLAND’IN KOBAYLARI” BASED ON CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Duygu AK BAŞOĞUL — 2024-08-29

The aim of the study is to investigate the novel “Kapiland’ın Kobayları” written by Miyase Sertbarut by using critical discourse analysis which is one of the qualitative research method. This method can be defined as an approach that determine power factors/relationship within discursive structure, how to create force/power by using discourse and their effects to group(s) applied pressure/power. The based model on analysis is Vienna School (Wodak, de Cillia, Matouschek, Januschiek ve Liebhart)’s approach. Depending on this model, the novel were analyzed in terms of contents, strategies and means and forms of realisation. Also was made socio-psychological descriptions. Finally, the findings of the study were presented, evaluated and recommendations were made accordingly. Reading texts play an important role in improving critical thinking skill. Hence it is expected that the research will contribute to teaching Turkish in the step of deep structure made clear.

LEXİCAL FIELDS OF THE WORD “MOUTH” IN TURKISH

Hülya AŞKIN BALCI — 2024-08-29

Due to the interaction of words, we face with the existence of some hierarchical relations each time that we look up a dictionary. In fact, it is not possible to determine the meaning borders of the words strictly but mainly it is possible to talk about nested meaning meshes and connotations. Thus, a word is meaningful in its own lexical field. Moreover, the words in a lexical field might unite with multiple basic semantic features. By this way, knowing the entire lexical meaning and understanding a word completely could be achieved and having lexical field knowledge of a word may ease to understand that word accurately. As Trier (1973;1-2) stated, the meaning exits merely by the agency of lexical field. If there is no lexical field then there is no meaning either. Thus the words are used by stimulating the meaning and form the basis of the individual's knowledge. As every word acquired through the interpretation process is a result of a lot of mental activity of the work, they are stored after they are created in memory and gain importance in the communication area. During the process of interpretation connotations area occur with the elements of the same concepts. Making word meaningful depending on the context for each human is replacing human memory in a way that has many emotional values. In our article, depending on this thought by illustrating the lexical field which the “mouth” concept belongs in the scope of lexical field theory we tried to expose its semantic connections in vocabulary. About the “mouth” concept that we face in many fields, we found out 399 usage feature in total.

A COMPARISON OF THE WORD SETS IN THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO AND THE WORDS IN TEACHING TURKISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS: THE CASE OF YUNUS EMRE INSTITUTE TURKISH INSTRUCTION SET A1 TEXTBOOK

Mehmet ÇİÇEK — 2024-08-29

As Turkish is a foreign language for everyone whose mother tongue is different from Turkish, Turkish instruction textbooks for foreigners are also prepared in accordance with the outcomes specified in the European Language Portfolio (ELP). Obviously, various techniques and methods are employed to help learners to acquire language skills. The most important aspect of language skills and outcomes is to teach basic core vocabulary belonging to one language. In this study, English word sets included in the European Language Portfolio (ELP) A1 level and word sets given in Yunus Emre Institute Teaching Turkish for Foreign Learners A1 textbook (YEILT) were compared. Research results indicated that a total of 779 words were found in the ELP, and a total of 1856 words were detected in the YEILT. These quantitative data refer to the words which are “known” for the ELP and the words “need to be known” for the YEILT. 55% of the words were the same in both the ELP and the YEILT. Furthermore, as the data about the ELP are limited, it may be suggested that the similarity of the words is satisfactory in terms of the outcomes. On the other hand, because the data about the ELP are obtained through translation, there are some disadvantages of obtaining data about words without their contexts, and this requires special efforts. The word sets given at the end of Turkish textbook were used to determine the words in the YEILT. Then the word sets in the YEILT were categorized according to their types in order to make a comparison among them. The same categorization procedure was employed for the words in the ELP. By making comparisons, it was aimed to determine whether the words demonstrated a significant difference according to the word types, and then significance levels were found (p<0,05). After these procedures, both of the resources were compared. Finally, different and/or similar words, the words which are the same in both resources, and the words included only in the ELP and etc. were listed and interpreted.

THE SYNTACTIC EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN SUMERIAN AND TURKISH

Süleyman ERATALAY& Sevda ERATALAY — 2024-08-29

When it is evaluated at the aspect of morphological classification in the terms of their syntactic structures, Turkish and Sumerian, which are quite close to each other within their agglutinative structures, it is little known about what kind of relationship they are in. Turkish is an agglutinative language. As it is known Turkish located in the Altay branch of the Ural-Altaic language family. As syntactical aspect Turkish differs from isolating languages like Vietnamese, inflected languages like Russian and Sanskrit and monosyllabic languages like Eskimo languages. Turkish uses the affixes for syntactic process. In the same way Turkish use the affixes to derive new words too. Sumerian is not indicated in any language family although his agglutinative structure. If we look at the structure of Sumerian we can say it is an agglutinative language. The affixes can be used to derive new words as well as in the syntactic process. In this context, the structural similarities of Sumerian and Turkish are very interesting. In Turkish and Sumerian phrases, we can clearly see the subject- object- predicate order. These basic syntactical features are common to both languages. However, such similarities are not sufficient to describe the relationship between the two languages with each other. Languages undergo some diachronic changes and in the same time can change also his own structures with different factors. We bring up in our study the syntactical features the two languages and in order to show the equivalence have given varied example of sentence analysis.